Theories Of Deviant Behavior

Theories Of Deviant Behavior Sigmund Freud was an Austrian neurologist and the founder of the psychoanalytic school of psychology. I intend to explain Freuds theory about the libido and how it changes its object, a process designed by the concept of sublimation. He argued that humans are born polymorphously perverse (AROPA, 2010), meaning that any number of objects could be a source of pleasure. Lawrence Kohlberg is known for writing The Six Stages of Moral Reasoning (Crain, 1985, pp. 118-136). These stages are planes of moral adequacy conceived to explain the development of moral reasoning and why these stages can lead to deviant behavior. I intend to scope all six stages and explain them in detail. In the end, from my explanation, one should be able to identify certain behaviors and where they stem from. Cesare Lombroso popularized the notion of the born criminal through biological determinism, claiming that criminals have particular physical attributes or deformities. If criminality was inherited, then the born criminal could be distinguished by physical atavistic stigmata. I intend to explain this theory in detail along with a few other concepts in order to properly broaden the topic so one can grasp its true meaning. Robert Mertons theory on deviance stems from his 1938 analysis of the relationship between culture, structure and anomie. Merton defines culture as an organized set of normative values governing behavior which is common to members of a designated society or group (Crain, 1985 pp 118-136). I intend to relate this theory to other theorists related to this field of study. I will define how one can become deviant through his/her surroundings. Each theorist has stated that deviance provides a way in which some individuals and groups can introduce their agendas to the rest of society, and elevate their own personal status while doing it (AROPA, 2010 pp 1-2). If that is the case then deviance is a violation of a norm; while crime is defined as a violation one specific type of norm, a law. By definition then, it would seem that society considers all crime to be deviant behavior. However, members of society may not consider a specific crime to be deviant at all. Sigmund Freud Stages of Development Freud advanced a theory of personality development that centered on the effects of the sexual pleasure drive on the individual psyche. At particular points in the developmental process, he claimed, a single body part is particularly sensitive to sexual, erotic stimulation (Stevenson, 1996 pp 2-3). These erogenous zones are the mouth, the anus, and the genital region. The childs libido centers on behavior affecting the primary erogenous zone of his age; he cannot focus on the primary erogenous zone of the next stage without resolving the developmental conflict of the immediate one. A child at a given stage of development has certain needs and demands, such as the need of an infant to nurse. Frustration occurs when these needs are not met; overindulgence stems from such a meeting of these needs that the child is reluctant to progress beyond the stage. Both frustration and overindulgence lock some amount of the childs libido permanently into the stage in which they occur; both result in a fixation (Stevenson, 1996 pp. 2-3). If a child progresses normally through the stages, resolving each conflict and moving on, then little libido remains invested in each stage of development. However, if he/she fixates at a particular stage, the method of obtaining satisfaction which characterized the stage will dominate and affect his/her adult personality. The Oral Stage The oral stage begins at birth, when the oral cavity is the primary focus of libidal energy. The infant preoccupies themselves with nursing, with the pleasure of sucking and accepting things into the mouth. The infant who is frustrated at this stage, because the mother refused to nurse him/her on demand or who ended nursing sessions early, is characterized by pessimism, envy, suspicion and sarcasm (Stevenson, 1996 pp 4-5). The overindulged oral character, whose nursing urges were always and often excessively satisfied, is optimistic, gullible, and is full of admiration for others around him/her (Stevenson, 1996 pp.4-5). The stage ends in the primary conflict of weaning, which both deprives the child of the sensory pleasures of nursing and of the psychological pleasure of being cared for and mothered. The stage lasts approximately one and one-half years. Anal Stage At one and one-half years, the child will enter the anal stage. The act of toilet training becomes the childs obsession with the erogenous zone of the anus and with the retention or expulsion of the feces. This represents a classic conflict between the id, which derives pleasure from expulsion of bodily wastes, and the ego and superego, which represent the practical and societal pressures to control the bodily functions (Stevenson, 1996 pp 5-6). The child will meet the conflict between the parents demands and the childs desires in one of two ways: Either he puts up a fight or he simply refuses to use expel the waste. The child who wants to fight takes pleasure in expelling maliciously, often just after being placed on the toilet. If the parents are too lenient and the child manages to derive pleasure and success from this expulsion, it will result in the formation of an anal expulsive character (Stevenson, 1996 pp 5-6). This character is generally messy, disorganized, reckless, carel ess, and defiant. However, a child may choose to retain feces, thereby disobeying his/her parents while enjoying the pleasurable pressure of the built-up feces on his/her intestine. If this tactic succeeds and the child is overindulged, he will develop into an anal retentive character (Stevenson, 1996 pp. 5-6). This character is neat, precise, orderly, careful, stingy, withholding, obstinate, meticulous, and passive-aggressive. This stage lasts from one and one-half to two years approximately. Phallic Stage From ages three to six, the setting for the greatest sexual conflict happens in the phallic stage. With the genital region becoming the weapon of choice, as the phallic stage matures, boys experience the Oedipus complex whereas girls experience the Electra complex. These complexes involve the inherent urge to remove our same-sexed parent so to possess our opposite-sexed parent (Psychosexual, 2010 pp 1) In boys, the father stands in the way of the increasingly sexual love for his mother. What controls this urge to eliminate the father is the fear that his father will remove their common appendage, the penis. The easiest way to resolve castration anxiety of the phallic stage is to imitate the father, which in the long-term acts as a voice of restraint in his adult life. The female counterparts in the phallic stage suffer from penis envy. The female child holds her mother accountable for not sharing the appendage that her brother wants to remove from their father. Unlike the male counte rparts, Freud remained unclear how the phallic stage is resolved. Fixation at the phallic stage develops a person who is reckless, resolute, self-assured, and narcissistic and is excessively vain and proud. The failure to resolve the conflict can also cause a person to be afraid or incapable of close love; Freud also hinted that fixation could be a root cause of homosexuality (Psychosexual, 2010 pp 1). Id, Ego, and Superego Freud saw the human personality as having three aspects, which work together to produce all of our complex behaviors. These are described as the t Id, the Ego and the Superego. All three components need to be well-balanced in order to have reasonable mental health. However, the Ego has a difficult time dealing with the competing demands of the Superego and the Id. According to the psychoanalytic view, this psychological conflict is an intrinsic and pervasive part of human experience (Wilderdom.com, 2008, pp. 1-2). The conflict between the Id and Superego, negotiated by the Ego, is one of the normal psychological battles all people face. The way in which a person characteristically resolves the instant gratification vs. longer-term reward dilemma reflects upon their character (Wilderdom.com, 2008, pp. 1-2). The id can be described as the functions of the irrational and emotional part of the mind. This part of psychology is very self-serving and uncaring towards others needs. This is very true of an infant since their only desire to be satisfied and served. In addition, this phase can be applied to childhood since children are also very self-serving and seek constant gratification. The Ego functions with the rational part of the mind. The Ego develops out of awareness that one cant always receive what they desire. The Ego operates in a world of reality. The Ego realizes the need for compromise and negotiates between the Id and the Superego. The Egos job is to get the Ids pleasures but to be reasonable and bear the long-term consequences in mind. (Wilderdom.com, 2008, pp. 1-2) The Ego denies gratification but the ego must cope with this conflicting force. To undertake its work of planning, thinking and controlling the Id, the Ego uses some of the Ids libidinal energy (Wilderdom.com, 2008, pp. 1-2). Typically, adults fit into this category since maturity also aides in recognizing reality and compromising. However, if the ego is too strong one can become well-organized and rational but extremely boring and cold. The Superego is the last part of the mind to develop. It is often called the moral part of the mind (Wilderdom.com, 2008, pp. 1-2). The Superego becomes a structure of parental and societal values by storing and enforcing rules. It constantly strives for perfection and its power to enforce rules comes from its ability to create mental anxiety. The Superego has two subsystems: Ego Ideal and Conscience. The Ego Ideal provides rules for good behavior, and standards of excellence towards which the Ego must strive. (Wilderdom.com, 2008, pp. 1-2). The Ego ideal is basically what the childs parents approve of or value. So, a parents proper guidance is greatly needed for one to possess these values. Therefore, these values will serve as their conscience throughout life. However, if ones superego is not balanced may feel guilty most of the time and feel the need to be perfect beyond reality.

Wetlands :: essays research papers

Soil and land managment Soil and Land Management The soil triangle is graph that helps the person determine the type of soil they are testing. This type of graph being a triangle has three sides. The first side, or right side is the percent of silt found in the soil sample. The second side, or the bottom is the percent of sand found in the soil sample. The third side, or the right side is the percent of clay found in the soil sample. You read the graph from right to left being silt, sand, to clay. There are twelve different classes of soil. The classes are sand, loamy sand, sandy loam, loam, silt loam, silt, sandy clay loam, clay loam, silty clay loam, sandy clay, silty clay, and clay. The particle size analysis we did I thought was very confusing, and unnecessary. The view of the soil underneath the microscope wasn’t very much different from the view without it, or at least I couldn’t tell much difference. The two millimeter mark on the paper was also very confusing. I had no idea of what I was doing during the particle size analysis. The mechanical soil analysis was much more to my liking. I understood the whole process and loved the project we did with it. From the begging when we went outside to collect the soil samples to when we were finished waiting the 24 hours for the water and soil particles to settle. After we mixed the right amount of dirt and water into the sample tube we had made two recordings of the percent of sand, silt, and clay. After that we took the readings over to the soil triangle to determine the type of soil that we had collected. The way soil is formed is not all that complicated. First soil begins as a rock and then is broken dependent upon the weathering factors. Soil types are based upon the type of rock from which they are made. Rock particles are further broken into various smaller sizes of rocks and minerals, then small plants such as lichens and mosses begin to grow on the rock surfaces. Dead plant materials or organic matter are mixed with rock fragments, and as more organic matter is formed, larger plant forms such as ferns, grasses, and shrubs take root. After that process bacteria and fungi break down the organic matter into simpler nutrients that are released into the soil, further aiding plant growth. The downside to this is that

The American Dream in Franklin’s Autobiography and Hawthorne’s My Kinsman, Major Molineux :: My Kinsman, Major Molineux

Benjamin Franklin and Nathaniel Hawthorne were both very important to America’s early literature. Franklin’s â€Å"Autobiography† and Hawthorne’s â€Å"My Kinsman, Major Molineux† represents the extremes of leaving home. Franklin makes accomplishing the American dream of the self-made man look easy. Hawthorne, however, revises and critiques that dream, showing the harsh realities of the real world. Franklin reveals his life story as a way to show the people of America that determination, hard work, and intelligence lead to success, while Hawthorne describes the harsh world waiting once youth and innocence are gone.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Benjamin Franklin and Robin, Hawthorne’s main character, leave home for different reasons. Franklin, in his autobiography, explains how he journeys to Philadelphia in search of a job and to start life on his own. Franklin wants independence and he knows he will find what he seeks. Franklin states, â€Å"I took it upon me to assert my Freedom† (194). Robin leaves his home with the idea of depending on his second cousin, dependence not independence. Robin journeys from his family’s country farm to the city in search of his kinsman, Major Molineux, with hopes that his kinsman will help him get started in life. Hawthorne writes, â€Å"The Major†¦ had thrown out hints respecting the future establishment of one of them in life. It was therefore determined that Robin should profit by his kinsman’s generous intentions† (801). Franklin and Robin’s arrival to the new towns embody the two author’s feelings toward the idea of the self made man.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Franklin and Robin arrival to their new destinations are drastically different. Franklin arrives in Philadelphia during the day, hungry, and dirty. Franklin’s determination keeps him going. He buys bread to eat, cleans himself up, and sets out straight away to find himself a job. He finds one within short time, â€Å"I return’d to Bradford’s who gave me a little job to do for the present, and there I lodged and dieted† (198). Franklin represents his arrival in Philadelphia as brightly and easy as it could possibly be, the people are nice, it is beautiful day, and he finds exactly what he wants, when he wants it. Hawthorne sees Franklin’s story as an abomination of the real world. Hawthorne stages Robin’s arrival to town at night, symbolizing the darkness of the harsh world. Robin also encounters nothing but paltry inhabitants of the town as he searches for his kinsman. Robin feels no joy as he journeys through the town, an d he even experiences fear at all of the strange things that he encounters.

A Persuasive Essay Against School Uniforms :: School Uniforms Argumentative

High school is typically a time when kids begin to distinguish themselves from one another. Students begin to develop their own sense of personal style, desperately trying to both fit in and stand out simultaneously. Being self-conscious and often lacking the confidence needed to assert themselves, teens are forced to use clothing and outward appearance as the means to manifest this individuality. Thus, students should not be forced to wear uniforms to school. Standard uniforms are unproven deterrents to student violence; are a "Band-Aid" to cover up the real problems faced by children and teens; and they violate students' right of self-expression, depriving them of their search for identity. There is something comforting about school children and teenagers dressed in pleats and plaid. Maybe it is a reminder of past times, or conjures up thoughts of order and safety. Whatever the reason, school uniforms are getting a lot of ?wear? these days, yet remain an unproven deterrent to school violence. No long-term, formal studies have been done with regards to the effectiveness of school uniforms, but many schools have kept their own informal statistics, such as the Long Beach School District. These statistics offered by Long Beach are often most cited as a proven deterrent to school violence, after adopting a mandatory uniform policy in 1994. According to Richard Van Der Laan, school crime has dropped over seventy-five percent, while attendance has reached an all-time high. One question we must ask ourselves is this, ?Is it the uniforms, or the induction of them that is solving the problem?? Maybe it is the school and parents showing some ?back-bone? which is affecting t he students, not the clothing. If you are a skeptic, get in line. There is no concrete evidence proving uniforms alone cause such dramatic reductions in crime, but rather, these policies appear to act as nothing more that a ?Band-Aid? that fails to address the real causes of youth violence. Although this violence, including sexual assault, can be linked to ?free-dress?, it is not dependent upon it, and points to deeper, more significant problems within the youth community. Violence is not learned by clothing, but rather through unfit home situations, negative friendships, and even popular culture (including emulation of television, media, music, and movies). A simple change in dress will not abolish these problems, but merely hide them for a time.

Nationalism in Latin American History

Nationalism 1. In the wake of neocolonialism, Latin Americans remade the nativist rhetoric of the past to push a new nationalist cultural and economic agenda. I. Nationalism 1. Latin American nations had been defined by their internal diversity 1. Transculturation 2. Racial mixing 2. Europeans had associated Latin American difference with a negative meaning 3. Nativism challenged this attitude 4. Nativism faded after independence 3. New nationalism was another wave of nativism with strong economic agenda 4. Who were nationalists? 5. Often urban, middle class 6. Mixed-race or recent immigrants . Benefitted less from export boom 5. Nationalism challenged the supposed superiority of European culture 8. Reinterpretation of Latin American difference as positive 9. Use of local cultural forms to define that difference 6. Critique of foreign intervention 10. Military intervention 11. Economic power 7. Ethnic nationalism 12. Differs from U. S. â€Å"civic nationalism†13. Employs signs of ethnic identity 1. Foods 2. Dance 3. Clothing 1. Celebrates racial mixing 1. Adaptation to Latin American environment 2. Sometimes as improvement — best of all races 3. Nicolas Guillen . Premier exponent of Afro-Cuban identity 2. â€Å"Ballad of Two Grandfathers† 3. Poems sometimes mimicked Afro-Cuban speech 1. Many writers use indigenous and Afro-Cuban themes 1. Alejo Carpentier (Cuba) 2. Ciro Alegria (Peru) 3. Miguel angel Asturias (Guatemala) I. Nationalists Take Power 1. Mexican Revolution 1. Diaz had ruled for 34 years by 1910 2. Reformers back Francisco Madero 1. Madero sought only more power for elites in Diaz government 2. Madero was jailed and exiled 1. Madero radicalizes, proposes returning indigenous lands 2. Emiliano Zapata 1.From indigenous community of Anenecuilo 2. Lost land to sugar plantations 3. Allied his movement with Madero 4. His image — sombrero, mustache, horse — become iconic of Revolution 5. One of many local leaders moving a gainst the government 1. Madero goes into exile in 1911 1. Diaz unseated by a general, killed 2. Years of upheaval, multiple armies fighting at once 1. Pancho Villa 1. Northern Mexico 2. Army comprised of cowboys, miners, railroad workers, oil workers 3. Very different from Zapata’s southern indigenous rebellion 1. Constitutionalists 1.Third movement along with Villa and Zapata 2. Urban, middle class 3. Drafted a new constitution in 1917 4. More typical of Latin American nationalists 5. May be considered the â€Å"winners† of the revolution 1. Constitution of 1917 1. Article 27 reclaims oil rights for nation from foreign companies 2. Paved the way for villages to recover common lands (ejidos) 3. Division of large landholdings, distribution to landless peasants 4. Article 123 – labor regulations 5. Limited privileges of foreigners 6. Curbed Catholic church 1. No longer could hold land 2. Limits to number of clergy . Clergy could not wear ecclesiastical clothes in the street 4. Clergy could not teach primary school 1. 7. Defeated Villa and Zapata 2. Fought off Catholic traditionalist â€Å"Cristero† rebellion 3. Created single-party political system 1. Remained in power as Revolutionary Party for seventy years 2. Employed Villa, Zapata, Madero as its heroes 1. Revolution was transformative for Mexico 1. Created new loyalties 2. Occupied a central space in the national imagination 3. Two U. S. interventions added nationalist luster 1. New government initiatives 1.Road initiative decreases isolation of rural areas 2. Land redistribution 3. Public education initiative 4. Jose Vasconcelos 1. Minister of Education 2. Celebrated the â€Å"Cosmic Race,† meaning mestizos 1. Artists Diego Rivera and Frida Kahlo illustrate revolutionary nationalism 1. Diego Rivera 1. Muralist 2. Depicted Mexico’s indigenous past 3. Painted Ministry of Public Education 1. (i) Images of open-air schools 2. (ii) Indigenous peasants dividing land 1. M exico’s national palace 1. (i) Scenes of Tenochtitlan 2. (ii) Depicts Spanish conquest as a hypocritical bloodbath 1. . Frida Kahlo 1. Small self-portraits 2. Painted while bedridden 1. (i) Polio survivor 2. (ii) Crippled by a traffic accident 3. (iii) Multiple surgeries 1. Depicted herself with cultural symbols of Mexico 1. (i) Traditional hairstyles 2. (ii) Folk dresses 3. (iii) Pre-Colombian jewelry 1. Nationalism was en vogue in the 1920s–30s 1. Folk music (corridos) 2. Dance (jarabes) 3. Traditional dishes (moles  and  tamales) 4. Old-style theater (carpas) 5. Mexican films 1. Nationalist movement had Marxist overtones 1. Kahlo and Rivera joined Communist party 2. Soviet exile Trotsky lived in Mexico 1.Uruguay 1. Background 1. Export boom rivaled that of Argentina 2. Ruled through managed elections 1. Jose Batlle y Ordonez 1. Country’s great nationalist reformer 2. First term (1903–07) vanquished political rivals 3. Broad support among immigrant working and middle class of Montevideo 1. Batllismo 1. Civic and economic nationalism 2. State action against â€Å"foreign economic imperialism† 1. Tariffs to protect local business 2. Government monopoly on public utilities 1. (i) Formerly British-owned railroad 2. (ii) Port of Montevideo 1. Government ownership of tourist hotels 2.Government owned meat-packing plants 3. State-owned banks 1. 3. Hemisphere’s first welfare state 1. Minimum wage 2. Labor regulations 3. Paid vacations 4. Accident insurance 5. Public education expanded 6. University opened to women 1. 4. Batllismo relied on prosperity to sustain reforms 2. Left rural Uruguay largely untouched 3. Aggressively anti-clerical 4. Tried to abolish presidency in favor of a council 5. Considered a â€Å"civil caudillo† 1. Argentina — Hipolito Yrigoyen 1. â€Å"Revolution of the ballot box† (1916) 1. Radical Civic Union 2. Middle-class reform party with working class support 3.First truly mass -based political party in Latin America 4. Rewarded supporters with public jobs 5. Reforms less audacious than in Uruguay 1. Used nationalist rhetoric 2. Did not significantly affect presence of foreign capital 1. 6. Created government agency to oversee oil production 1. Man of the people 1. Hated, and hated by, urban elite 2. Framed politics in moral terms 3. Lived in a simple house 1. Rejected European and U. S. initiatives 2. Repressed labor action 1. â€Å"Tragic week† of 1919 2. Patagonian sheep herders’ strike of 1921 1. Returned to power in 1928 1.Victor Manuel Haya de la Torre (Peru) 2. Exiled from Peru for protesting a U. S. -backed dictatorship 3. Lived in Mexico, influenced by Mexican Revolution 4. Formed Popular American Revolutionary Alliance (APRA) 1. International party 2. Defense against economic imperialism 1. Preferred the term â€Å"Indo-America† to Latin America 2. Indigenismo  Ã¢â‚¬â€œ nationalist emphasis on indigenous roots 1. Jose Carlo s Mariategui imagined indigenous socialism 2. Inca models combined with Marxist theory 3. Peruvian society ethnically split, so  indigenismo  was not successful 1.APRA 1. Did not succeed as international party 2. Indigenismo  scared Peru’s Conservatives 3. Mass rallies against oligarchy, imperialism 4. Party revolted after losing a managed election 5. Rebellion crushed, party banned 1. Ciro Alegria 1. High-ranking APRA militant 2. Fled Peru 3. Wrote  indigenismo  fiction 4. Authored â€Å"Wide and Alien is the World† 5. Best-known Latin American  indigenismo  writer 1. Nationalists were influential even when kept from power 1. Colombia 1. Nationalists tried to outflank conservative client networks 1. Unionized urban workers 2.Rural oligarchies were too strong 1. 2. Jorge Eliecer Gaitan 1. Fiery popular leader 2. Rose to fame protesting massacre of banana workers at U. S. -owned plantation 1. Venezuela 1. Oil money kept leaders entrentched 2. Popular outre ach carried out by communist or socialist activists 1. Chile 1. Thirteen-day â€Å"Socialist Republic† 2. Nationalists on the right prevented consolidation of a government 1. Cuba 1. Broad nationalist coalition ousted neocolonial dictator 2. Included university students and non-commissioned army officers 3. Fulgencio Batista 1.Led military element of revolution 2. Bowed to U. S. influence 3. Nationalism as window-dressing I. ISI and Activist Governments of the 1930s 1. Import Substitution Industrialization (ISI) 1. International trade collapses during 1930s Depression 2. Latin American manufacturers fill void left by collapsed trade 3. Began during trade disruption during World War I 1. Buenos Aires, Sao Paulo, Rio de Janeiro, Mexico City develop industry 2. Latin American industry remains mostly undeveloped 1. Industrialization becomes central to nationalism 1. Economic activism 1.Setting wages and prices 2. Regulating production levels 3. Protective labor laws 4. Manipulate d exchange rates 1. 2. State ownership of banks, utilities, key industries 1. Largest markets benefitted from ISI 1. Mexico 2. Southern Cone nations 1. Smaller markets did not see much industrialization 1. Poor, rural populations 2. Less market for domestically-produced products 1. Light industry responded better to ISI than heavy industry 1. Heavy industry required importing equipment 2. Required steel 3. Only Mexico, Argentina, Brazil, and Chile had steel industries 1. Brazil 1.Industry surpassed agriculture as percentage of GDP within two decades 2. Getulio Vargas 1. Compared to U. S. president FDR (Franklin Delano Roosevelt) 1. Made famous use of radio 2. Vastly expanded government 1. Oligarchic republic begins to collapse in 1920s 2. Young army officers –  tenentes  Ã¢â‚¬â€œstage symbolic uprisings 3. Coffee industry in crisis from overproduction 1. â€Å"Coffee Valorization Program† cannot offset drops in prices 2. Depression in 1929 causes prices to plummet again 1. Revolution of 1930 1. Vargas was governor of Rio Grande do Sul, non-coffee state 2.Candidate from coffee-producing Sao Paulo won a managed election 3. Opposition forces gather to dispute result 4. Vargas takes presidency with support of the army 5. Revolution of 1930 brought together diverse political movements 1. Frustrated liberals 2. Tenentes —  nationalists who despised Liberals 1. Young  Tenentes  absorb radical ideologies 1. Many  tenentes  joined communist party 2. Communist party at the center of Alliance for National Liberation (ALN) 3. Others join Integralists, inspired by European fascism 1. Vargas presidency 1.Ruled more-or-less constitutionally for seven years 2. Played different political factions against each other 3. Took dictatorial power in 1937 4. Announced  Estado Novo  (New State) 1. Highly authoritarian 2. Dissolved legislative bodies 3. Banned political parties 4. Media censored 5. â€Å"Interventors† appointed to direct st ate governments 6. Police operated with brutal impunity 1. 5. Nationalism helped maintain his popularity 1. Flood of new government agencies 2. National Steel Company 3. National Motor Factory 4. Prohibited foreign ownership of newspapers 5.Assimilation pressure on immigrant communities 1. Promotion of Afro-Brazilian heritage 1. Gilberto Freyre 1. Anthropologist 2. Authored  The Masters and the Slaves 3. Argued that African heritage created Brazil’s national identity 1. 2. Samba became Brazil’s national dance 2. Carmen Miranda 1. Known for her fruit-hats 2. Movie star first in Brazil, then in United States 3. In Brazil, movies occupied a nationalist niche — national dance, national music 4. In the United States, became a caricature of Latin America 5. Born in Portugal, raised in Brazil . Dance, costumes, and songs embodied Brazil 1. Sao Paulo Modern Art Week, 1922 1. Heitor Villa-Lobos 1. Integrated Brazilian folk melodies into classical compositions 2. Under Vargas, worked on national program for musical enrichment 3. Remains Latin America’s most famous classical composer 1. 2. Oswald de Andrade 1. â€Å"Cannabalist manifesto† 1928 2. Suggested that Brazilians metaphorically cannibalize European art 1. (i) Consume and digest it 2. (ii) Combine it with indigenous and African art to create Brazilian forms 1. 3.Jorge Amado 1. Best-known Brazilian novelist 2. Novels set in strongly Afro-Brazilian Bahia 1. Placing Vargas on the left-right spectrum 1. Organized labor unions 2. Protected workers 1. 48-hour work week 2. Safety standards 3. Retirement and pension plans 4. Maternity benefits 1. 3. Paternalistic — no worker control 1. Striking prohibited 2. Grievances addressed to the state 1. Lazaro Cardenas in Mexico 1. Humble beginnings, unlike Vargas or FDR 2. Fought in the Revolution 3. Became governor of Michoacan, his home state 4. Ran for president unopposed as Revolutionary party’s candidate 1.Campaigned across the country 2. Made a point to visit small villages 1. Distributed nearly 45 million acres of land, as much as previous twenty-four years put together 2. Supported labor, defended right to strike 1. Led to major international confrontation in 1938 2. Striking workers were employed by U. S. and British companies 3. Companies and strikers submitted to Mexican government for arbitration 1. Arbitrators awarded workers increased pay and social services 2. Foreign firms refused to comply 3. Mexican supreme court upheld decision 4.Companies continued to stonewall 1. 4. Cardenas expropriated the oil companies under Article 27 1. Mexicans voluntarily contributed to help government compensate the companies 2. Seen as a â€Å"declaration of economic independence† 3. Gave rise to national oil company, PEMEX 1. 5. Britain cut off diplomatic relations 1. FDR’s â€Å"Good Neighbor Policy† 1. Need for Latin American allies in unstable 1930s 2. 1933, Pan-American Conference 1. United States forswears intervention in Latin America 2. Cuba and Panama would no longer be protectorates 1.Rise of â€Å"Good Neighbor† movies 1. Carmen Miranda 2. Disney’s â€Å"Three Caballeros† 1. World War II 1. All countries of Latin America joined the United States as allies in World War II 1. Central American and Caribbean countries among first to join 1. Rafael Trujillo of the Dominican Republic 1. (i) Petty dictator supported by United States 2. (ii) â€Å"He’s our bastard† 1. 2. Chile and Argentina were aloof, with large population of immigrants from Italy, Germany 2. Brazil was greatest ally 1. â€Å"Bulge of Brazil† was of great strategic importance 2.Vargas allowed construction of U. S. bases and airstrips 3. Brazilian infantry fought in Italy 1. 4. Mexican fighter pilots flew in Pacific 1. War spurred ISI 1. U. S. demand for agricultural exports increased 2. United States and Europe still unable to produce industrial goods 3. Demand up and competition low for Latin American industry 4. Brazil, for example, enjoyed a huge trade surplus 1. Nationalism in 1945 1. Cultural shift had taken place 1. Rivera’s murals in Mexico’s government buildings 2. Acclaim for Afro-Brazilian samba dancers . Carlos Gardel 1. Famed tango singer 2. Popular throughout Latin America 3. Career cut short by plane crash 1. 4. Gabriel Mistral 1. Chilean poet 2. First Latin American to win a Nobel Prize 1. Many things remained unchanged 1. Central America virtually untouched by benefits of nationalism 1. Internal markets too small to support industrialization 2. Land-owning oligarchies had not ceded control 1. 2. Guatemala 1. German coffee growers had no interest in developing the country 2. Jorge Ubico 1. (i) Classic neocolonial dictator 2. ii) Main concern was promoting â€Å"civilization† and cultivating coffee 3. (iii) Wanted to be closest U. S. ally 1. United Fruit Company becomes single dominant economic ent erprise 1. 3. El Salvador represented â€Å"worst-case scenario† 1. Dictator Maximiliano Hernandez Martinez 1. Brutally defended coffee production 2. (ii) 1932 becomes known as the year of â€Å"the Slaughter† 3. (iii) Most of the more than 10,000 victims were indigenous 1. Indigenous Salvadorans slowly gave up signs of their identity 1. 4.United States stopped nationalism in Central America and Caribbean 1. Batista in Cuba 2. Several rulers owed their power to U. S. intervention 1. (i) Anastasio Somoza of Nicaragua 2. (ii) Trujillo of Dominican Republic 1. (1) Motto: â€Å"God and Trujillo† 2. (2) Major nationalist effort was massacre of Haitian immigrants 1. 5. Rhetoric often outran reality in nationalist countries 1. Racism lingered 2. Urbanization created shantytowns 3. Rural areas of most countries saw no improvements 4. Countries remained technologically behind Europe and United StatesChapter

Describe the Expectedm Pattern of Children and Young People’s Development from Bith to 19 Years Essay

From their first year babies will start to have more control – hold their head, roll over, sit up unaided, hold a rattle, put everything into their mouths and start to crawl. During their second year development and growth continues and most start to walk. They learn to control their movements and grab objects and food and start to play with toys. They will start to climb and learn to judge distances. Towards their third year, children will have lots more control as their muscles develop and their confidence grows. Feeding themselves, using a cup and showing an interest in dressing themselves, also able to grip pencils and turn pages in a book. | Babies from birth cry to communicate and react this way to sounds. They then begin to turn their heads in the direction of sounds and use their eyes to follow others. As babies develop they enjoy attention and learn to make noises other than crying and will start to laugh. By the age of one, most understand simple words like no and yes and their own name. They will start to follow simple instructions. Between one and two years children start to pronounce words and this will then start to increase rapidly. They watch everything going on around them and recognise people. Between two to three years children recognise the difference between you, me and I and start to ask lots of questions, they won’t always get grammar right. They enjoy songs and have favourite stories. | From birth dependant on adults for comfort which generally stops when cuddled. Babies respond to adults especially Mothers face and voice. Will start to smile after a few weeks and stare at faces. As they reach 6 months babies start to enjoy more interaction and perhaps play peek-a-boo and show affection. Between one and two years they may become anxious when separated from known adults, may use a comfort object and start to play alongside other children but not with. They show interest around them and greet know adults with pleasure. Need continuous attention as can get into mischief, does not understand danger. Will get frustrated with themselves if can’t do something they try to do. Two to three years sees a sense of own identity, likes to roll-play, sometimes reluctant to share. Prone to tantrums, can spoon feed themselves, joins in songs, can use sentences but may not always make sense. Ready to toilet train. | 3 – 7 years| Three to four years – more coordination over movements – jumping with feet together, walk on tip toes, using stairs, catching a gently thrown ball, climbing with confidence. At four to five years they learn to pedal a tricycle and have control with fine motor skills such as cutting and drawing, using scissors, holding pencils. By five their skills become refined. They can hop and kick a ball with aim, handle a pencil with more control and copy shapes and some letters. Six to seven years most children can skip, ride a bicycle, do up buttons, write, handle larger climbing equipment confidently. | From three to four years children can understand two to three simple commands at once. They sort objects by size, colour and draw some objects. Loves the same stories over and over, very inquisitive, will start to know colours. By age four their grammar improves and they ask more complex questions. They also have a sense of humour. Between five to seven they begin to understand about differences, can count up to 20, know their address. Also start to recognise written words and start to write words and sentences and make up stories. | Three to four years – play becomes more sociable and able to share. Starts to show sympathy towards others and become more cooperative – likes to help. Pretend play is more complex and self-motivated and behaviour is getting better. They feel more secure and able to cope with separation from family for periods of time. Between five to seven years children can brush their own teeth, dress and undress. Can make friends and is developing a sense of rules. They love learning about people and the real world. They need routine and structure. Can use a knife and fork and enjoy a little responsibility. | 7 – 12 years| Children can run, jump, climb, swing, hit a ball and enjoys team games by age 8. Can sometimes be unsure of their own ability. May start to have hobbies and interests and have skills required to learn an instrument. About the age of 10-11 girls may start to show early signs of puberty. | Most children will be fluent in language and can read to themselves and also out loud. They start to develop their own thoughts and preferences and are able to discuss ideas. They take a lively interest in certain subjects over others. They write descriptively and drawing is detailed. They need help with the complexities of spellings. | At seven, friendships will be more settled and tend to be in groups. Children around this age start to become less dependent on adults for close support and have an understanding about behaviour and what is acceptable. By eight, children will start to form close friendships. They form their own personalities. Towards 10 and above children start to become aware of their own gender, and what others may think of them. |

Drone Attack

Drone Attacks Inside Pakistan there is ‘national consensus’ on the drones: the US must stop its Predators because they kill innocent citizens in collateral damage and increase the pressure on Pakistan Army fighting the Taliban by swelling the ranks of those who fight it for revenge. Outside Pakistan, there is an impression that the drones are being used against the terrorists in Pakistan’s Tribal Areas under some kind of secret deal between the CIA and Pakistan Army.Another al Qaeda top echelon leader has been killed on January 11  in Miranshah in North Waziristan through this alleged ‘coordination’. This was said to be Abdullah Khorasani, who is believed to have been playing a key role in planning the overall strategy of terror acts in Pakistan. The man’s real name was AslamAwan, and he was a citizen of Abbottabad, where Osama bin Laden was killed last May by US commandos. As per routine, the drone attack was effective because it was directe d by spotters on ground calling the strike precisely on to the victim.The strike ended a 55-day-long pause after the Salalacheckpost attack by American gunships in November 2011. Following this, a foreign news agency quoted Pakistani officials who said that the  drones are being operated under an agreed US-Pakistan plan  which remains classified. This clearly contradicts the government’s public stance on this issue, which, quite stridently believes that drones violate Pakistan’s sovereignty and territorial integrity.The American stance in the past has been that drone attacks had to be carried out without bringing Pakistan into the loop because the Pakistani side tended to ‘pass on’ the information about the attack to the terrorists who then moved away from the target area. This was understood all over the world in the light of the belief that Pakistan was actually an allowing safe haven to foreigner terrorists in North Waziristan whom it used for attac king inside Afghanistan to retain its stake in the Afghan endgame.The new ‘information’ — including quotes from unnamed Pakistani officials — belies much of that. It purports to verify that the Pakistani side was indeed keeping the strikes secret and, instead of passing on the information to the terrorists, was actually helping the CIA target them with spotters on the ground. Given the nature of these revelations, it remains to be seen what the Pakistani military’s response will be to them. One should understand that the drone attacks have been a success story as far as the US and its allies are concerned.The ‘analysis’ about the ‘wiping out’ of al Qaeda and the sharp diminution in its ability to target America and Europe is based on the number of al Qaeda terrorists killed by the drones inside Pakistan. As if to confirm this, a meeting took place between an al Qaeda leader and Mullah Umar in the presence of other commander s in which the al Qaeda representative was quoted as appealing for help for more attacks by allies in Pakistan. Pakistan’s wrath against the CIA after the Raymond Davis case in Lahore early 2011 had brought the  US-Pakistan quarrel to a boiling point.Since then, and since the May 2 attack that killed Osama bin Laden, the relationship has been hurtling downhill, ending in Pakistan’s decision not to attend the Bonn conference on Afghanistan. This would then lead to many arguing that with this all as a backdrop, how Pakistan could possibly be cooperating with the US on the drone attacks. Yet there is logic to the opposite point of view. Pakistan has benefited from the attacks in the sense that some of its most dangerous enemies have been killed by the drones.BaitullahMehsud, the Taliban chief, whose intercepted telephone call revealed that he was behind the assassination of Benazir Bhutto, was killed by a drone. Ilyas Kashmiri was killed in a drone strike and  Hakimul lahMehsud, who succeeded Baitullah, was killed ‘twice’ in drone strikes. The first one was false but the second more recent one is yet to be proven false. Clearly, drone strikes are effective. However, Pakistan’s policy of saying one thing in public and quite the opposite in private should be replaced by when where the people should be persuaded of this strategy’s effectiveness.